11: 444) clarified the division of incoming tributes among the three rulers after the defeat of Azcapotzalco, using the 2:2:1 formula. For example, the gold and silver images of llamas that accompanied the procession of the Inka ruler during the celebration of the winter solstice stood for the llamas that had emerged with the first Inkas from the cave of Pacaritambo (Molina 1943: 28). I follow Gates (1988) in advocating a formalism of a new kind, one that locates texts and other cultural forms and practices in a historically articulated repertoire; in short, a formalism that is sensitive to the social conditions of textual production and to the repertoire of local figures and strategies. Our Western hermeneutic/talmudic tradition of the close reading and interpretation of the text binds us too closely to the written word and our sense of the revelation of history. Moreover, in one way or another, it is this ample notion of text that brings these papers together in relation to the place, status, transformation, and/or role of Pre-Hispanic traditions in the colonial world. While there were some ad hoc instances of warfare waged by only the “Alliance” cities, the sources are contradictory regarding which battles were so fought. Don Tomé, the brother of the lord of Huejotzingo, accompanied Guzman. Throughout the battle to have putatively ancient lore respoken as law, the native litigant was forced to assume the main burden of intercultural interpretation. 1988 The Writing of History (Tom Conley, trans.). 2nd ed. Twelve o’clock, one. See also Aztecs; bilingualism; encomiendo; ethnicity; genealogy; narratives; painted testimonies; Tenochtitlan ancestors, 190 destruction of books, 154–155, 423 Meztitlan, 245 Michoacan, 245 Mictlantecuhtli, 160 Miguel, Bartolomé, 224 Milpa Alta, 220, 438, 439, 441 Concepción Arenal School, 438–439 Missale Romanum, 311, 313, 315, 325, 333 Missale Secundum, 333, 334 mita system, Inka, 46 for the cultivation of maize, 58 as designed by Matienzo for Potosí, 58 mitayos, Indian peasants, 74 Mixquica, 236 Mixtec colonial period documents, 423 historical screenfolds, 150 manuscript, 223 Moctezuma, 152, 156, 188, 205, 207, 237, 241, 242, 243, 245, 246, 250, 253, 356. That is, whatever was occurring in the development of the cult of El Señor de los Milagros, it was at a social level that did not necessitate it being noticed as important within writings of the viceregal court. In this respect, it is a shift in perspective from Charles Gibson’s great books, Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century (1952) and Aztecs under Spanish Rule (1964). They swore to the truth represented here, their statements were written in Nahuatl directly on the paintings; the court’s Nahuatl interpreter offered the Spanish translation, and that too was transcribed on the paintings; finally, the indigenous authorities and the court clerk all affirmed the proceeding and signed. LEÓN-PORTILLA, MIGUEL 1986 Yancuic tlahtolli: Palabra nueva. the name Culua comprises all the lands and provinces in this region subject to Temixtitan.” Thus Cortés, writing before the conquest, observed that Moctezuma, ruler of Tenochtitlan, was the supreme head of the “Culua empire,” which later become known as the Aztec empire. Origenes et croyances des Indiens du Mexique (Jacques Lafaye, ed.). Maps and house plans accompanying legal documents typically contain hill glyphs, house glyphs, little black footprints on roads and footpaths, etc. Francisca Carguachuqui finally explained her reluctance to testify with the following devilish response: she claimed great reticence to confess this particular request to Church authorities, made, as it was, by a Spanish woman for love magic—“[Francisca Carguachuqui] could not testify because she was looking out for, protecting, the señora’s honor” (AAL: leg. Behind these realities, Guaman Poma perceived the hand of an angry Christian God. ROYS, RALPH L. (ED. These priests, supported by tithes raised from the native people, would provide the local supervision and basic religious instruction that was still lacking. . It was possible to integrate an Andean vision of the mythic and historical past with their Christian equivalents, as Guaman Poma did at the beginning of his Corónica. CORNEJO POLAR, ANTONIO 1978 El indigenismo y las literaturas heterogéneas: su doble estatuto sociocultural. the Indians find it difficult to give explanations unless they can consult the book of their village.” Boone also reminds us (p. 149) how Spanish officials accepted and respected native pictorial manuscripts, which partly explains their survival to about 1600. It may be significant, however, that Cortés took the tlatoque of these three cities with him on his Guatemalan expedition and executed them all in 1525 (Cuauhtemoc of Tenochtitlan, Coanacoch of Texcoco, and Tetlepanquetzal of Tlacopan; Cortés 1971: 518; Gibson 1964: 155). After Toledo’s arrival, he and Matienzo formed an intimate alliance broken only by the judge’s death in 1579. Both Nancy Farriss (1984) and Marta Hunt (n.d., 1976) have already pointed out the tendency of Yucatan to retain certain characteristics longer than central Mexico. Today the old dam is left open, and the actual work of closing the dam is just a matter of shutting the steel sluice. 8) remain an essential part of the finished product of Sahagún’s long project, a fact more evident from the facsimile than from the Anderson and Dibble edition, where the illustrations are gathered together, separated from the text. 13) presents in brief the line of ownership of these properties, be27 Glass and Robertson (1975: 184) give a brief description of the manuscript and locate it in eastern Tlaxcala; see Anaya Monroy (1965: 48, 72, 166–167, map opp. Note the combination of drawn indigenous calendrical symbols with Arabic numerals and the alphabetically written names of years, as in “4 Acaxihuitl” or “Three Reed Year” (1639) (Museo Nacional de Antropología y Historia, Colección Antigua 872, fol. 146 Colonial Andean Images and Objects PÉREZ BOCANEGRA, JUAN 1631 Ritual formulario, e institución de Curas, para administrar a los naturales de este Reyno. How these topics are treated in the different traditions varies in significant ways, as has already been demonstrated in the discussion of tribute distribution. See also Historia de la nación Chichimeca; Historia ToltecaChichimeca Chichimeca Teuctli, 253 Chicomoztoc, 183 Chilam Balam, Books of. B9165 (after Rowe 1961). AND EDS.) 189 Elizabeth Hill Boone nesses testified that Temascalapa had always been independent until recently. I am not looking for continuities, real or 1 For discussions of the ceremonial, experiential focus of Nahua religion, see Clendinnen (1990, 1991). TITO CUSSI YUPANQUI, DIEGO DE CASTRO 1988 Instrucción del Inga. In his Historia de la nación Chichimeca (early seventeenth century), he credited only the Texcocan tlatoani, Nezahualcoyotl, with the creation of the alliance following the defeat of Azcapotzalco. 9: 140–142. In case of appeal, they might make their way up through the courts and eventually be subjected to the scrutiny of Spanish officials. . XII; BN: C4142). A 1536 idolatry trial (Procesos 1912: 3) mentions a local tribute painting, and Durán (1971: 396, 124) tells of census documents and property accounts for newlyweds. 6. 439 Frances Karttunen Fig. . Ñuqahina pim wanana Mit’anmanta zananmanta Tiqzi machup churinmanta Llapa yalliq millaymana Much’apuway yasuywana Wawaykikta. 4). Mendieta (1971: 665) and Valadés (Palomera 1988: 73, 185, 306–307) tell how the friars saw paintings as effective instructional aides in the conversion process.They thus would set up large paintings of the Ten Commandments or the Articles of Faith, for example, and would point to them as they preached (Ricard 1966: 104–107; Glass 1975: 282–283; Normann n.d.: 12–17). Solicitado. True, the colonists acquired some Eastern habits in food and housing; their 22 The Many Faces of Medieval Colonization military architecture profited a great deal from the expertise of native masons; and in ideological terms, they became, as a group, more tolerant of different cultures than were their counterparts in western Europe. They end with one of the alleged sons of the town founder pronouncing that his own son will inherit the contested properties along with the “true title . Espasa Calpe, Madrid. 105 19. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos/Sociedad Peruana de Psicoanálysis, Lima. As happened with some words in Nahuatl too, usually 6 Although casara- appears prominently in the Quechua to Spanish section, the older forms used by fray Domingo de Santo Tomás dominate the corresponding part of the Spanish to Quechua section (p. 449). 433 Frances Karttunen texts.Why would communities invest in documents that would not stand up in court? Looking about for broader cultural phenomena that might throw light on the Andean situation, I find relatively little that is unambiguous, partly because of the lack of a large corpus of mundane indigenous texts that is most revealing for the Nahuas and the Yucatecans, and partly because of my present rustiness with the Peruvian historical and anthropological literature. Reading Is for Them: Colonial Andean Images and Objects “como es costumbre tener los caciques Señores” 91 TOM CUMMINS v Contents Pictorial Documents and Visual Thinking in Postconquest Mexico 149 ELIZABETH HILL BOONE The Social vs. Legal Context of Nahuatl Títulos 201 STEPHANIE WOOD INTERPRETING THE PAST FOR THE PRESENT The Aztec Triple Alliance: A Postconquest Tradition 233 SUSAN D. GILLESPIE Collquiri’s Dam: The Colonial Re-Voicing of an Appeal to the Archaic 265 FRANK SALOMON Time, Space, and Ritual Action: The Inka and Christian Calendars in Early Colonial Peru 295 SABINE MACCORMACK RELIGIOUS CONTEST, NEGOTIATION, AND CONVERGENCE Pachacamac and El Señor de los Milagros 345 MARÍA ROSTWOROWSKI Pious Performances: Christian Pageantry and Native Identity in Early Colonial Mexico 361 LOUISE M. BURKHART LANGUAGE AS THE ARMATURE OF IDENTITY A Nation Surrounded 383 BRUCE MANNHEIM Indigenous Writing as a Vehicle of Postconquest Continuity and Change in Mesoamerica FRANCES KARTTUNEN vi 421 Contents SYNTHETIC COMMENTS Native Traditions in the Postconquest World: Commentary 449 TOM CUMMINS INDEX 463 vii Introduction Introduction ELIZABETH HILL BOONE TULANE UNIVERSITY T HE GREAT WAVE OF THE QUINCENTENNIAL, from the time it began to swell in the late 1980s until it finally rolled to shore in 1992, drew unprecedented attention to the Americas and to the place of the Americas in the rest of the world. 24b Drawing of one of a pair of aquillas from the Atocha, before 1622. A critical study of the historical information that scholars have already assumed refers to the Triple Alliance must be undertaken working with the possibility that there was no Triple Alliance per se, therefore to re-assess the significance of that information.3 Early Sixteenth Century: The Cities While it is clear that Cortés considered Tenochtitlan and Moctezuma to have been supreme, there are clues in the early records to the importance of other cities in the Basin of Mexico. Each line is ten syllables long and divided into halves of five syllables each. JIMÉNEZ DE LA ESPADA, MARCOS (ED.) It differs from a classical sonnet form in that it can be divided into two parts of equal length. In Handbook of Middle American Indians (Robert Wauchope, Gordon Ekholm, and Ignacio Bernal, eds.) For the Nahuas, contact with the sacred was established through ritual and the collective carrying out of certain actions at prescribed moments in a calendrical sequence or life cycle. Equally important, one finds that the keros, aquillas, and kumbi (tapestry) textiles listed in the wills are not only old but new.48 These objects continued to be produced and valued, and it is in this context that the continuity of costumbres in terms of the sites of Andean representation operated openly in colonial society. Who will be the consumers, and who will support the enterprise: local communities, Mexican state and/or federal governments, international organizations, or a partnership of all of these? Nevertheless, with Christian insight, Guaman Poma reminded his readers that “the first sin ever committed was by a woman” (1980: 122). . The emphasis among the Maya on named lineages, absent among the Nahuas, made it virtually impossible for them to give up indigenous surnames, no matter what the general cultural context. The three cities also appear as a group in a 1539 inquisitorial proceeding against Don Carlos, an idolator who claimed to be a descendant of Nezahualcoyotl (a Pre-Hispanic ruler of Texcoco), although there is no confirming evidence for this (Pomar 1986: 46). The remaining Inka months have one or the other.There is, in short, an overall conceptual scheme that pervades both calendars. TAUSSIG, MICHAEL T. 1987 Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man: A Study in Terror and Healing. 418 A Nation Surrounded SALOMON, FRANK 1982 Chronicles of the Impossible. 414 A Nation Surrounded BIBLIOGRAPHY ADORNO, ROLENA 1991 Images of Indios Ladinos in Early Colonial Peru. If, however, with further research two or more separate spheres can be identified and characterized, a greater congruence in each may yet emerge. Photograph courtesy of Lowie Museum, University of California, Berkeley. To explain the Andean situation, I hypothesize a bifurcation, much deeper and starker than that I have imagined in Yucatan. Through their pious words and pious performances, the Nahuas actively represented themselves as Christians while retaining many of the moods, movements, and media that had constituted their traditional religiosity. There were various efforts to control how the Nahuas practiced even their inferior form of Christian religious life. It appears that the two idols at once opposed and complemented each other, since Copacabana, on the lakeshore, represented the water from Hurin-Below, while Copacati, on a hilltop, symbolized the rain or the deity of water from Above or Hanan. Where the Third Council encouraged the use of neologisms such as I ñiy, “to say ‘uh huh,’” to accommodate the absence of a concept of “belief ” in Southern Peruvian Quechua, Pérez often preferred to use the habitual form with the infinitive “to say.” The Third Council of Lima agonized over the translation of Christian religious vocabulary and finally recommended that Spanish loans be used in order to avoid possible doctrinal distortions. Ediciones Atlas, Madrid. The audible breaks load the second half of each line against the first. Ñukñu ruruq chunta mallki Runakunap munay kallcha 75 Pukay-pukay zumaq phallcha Sut’arpu tukuchiq khallki T’itu wach’iq nawillayki Qispi wampu 14. The shared presence of the power of the past is possible, however, and it is most immediate in language because, as Mannheim points out, language is an immediate ethnic identifier through which traditions are maintained, and thereby language allows a certain degree of power over the definition of self and community within a colonial situation.Yet at the same time, as Lockhart points out, language is a place of convergence that operates in an unreflected process of change among native speakers as read through the mundane documents of notarial records. 6, exp. Boletín del Archivo General de la Nación (Mexico), ser. These plays were part of an effort by provincial elites of Spanish descent to assert their legitimacy within a Quechua field of reference and thereby legitimize their vast landholdings. GARCÍA ICAZBALCETA, JOAQUÍN (ED.) 1992 The Codex Mendoza. Although he gave supremacy to Moctezuma, Cortés did mention other important cities and provinces in the Basin of Mexico. ): 583–608. In this millennial kingdom, gently overseen by the friars, the native people would have no need of their own priests in order to attain spiritual perfection. Neither pattern I (Fig. . For the winter solstice in June, he drew a small sun which the Inka ruler fortifies with a toast of chicha (Fig. [email protected] Close vigilance over women’s sexuality, then, was crucial to the successful reproduction of colonial society—evaluated by standards of good government, political order, and growth in the Indian population. 3rd ed. These were the “sons” and heirs of Pawllu Thupa, the one Inka “prince” to make peace, early and openly, with the Europeans. 12) would seem to have had more access to codices than women. The vicar general, informed of the celebrations in Pachacamilla, ordered on September 5, 1671, that the image on the wall be erased in order to put an end to the cult. In considering these pictorials, we have to realize that on the level at which these manuscripts are operating, the so-called Spanish world and Indian world are largely inseparable. 30, 219), all misspell Ayarmaca as Ayamarca, but Murúa (1962, bk. It is true that from a strictly Spanish point of view primordial titles could be described as unorthodox, but the Spanish point of view is in this case not the pertinent one.The titles are not frauds and are far more than simple land records. Moreover, they seem to retain the final vowel of the infinitive rather than the final vowel of the third person form, where the two differ.Thus we see servi(as in Urioste 1983: 182) rather than sirve-, destrui- (p. 32) rather than destruye-, and reduci(p. 48) rather than reduce-. . MACCORMACK, SABINE 1988 Atahualpa y el libro. Such visible lessons in social order rebounded as shame on those who were disciplined—at least according to colonial rules.14 Punishments were more than humiliating, they stained the name and, by extension, the lineage of those accused. The second idol, a stone with an “extremely ugly body” and a headful of curled snakes, was named Copacati. Sí, Green Point ofrece servicio de comida para llevar. After Doña Luz’s own untimely death in a traffic accident, Horcasitas edited and published two major collections of her work: her autobiography and a collection of forty-four stories she had dictated in Nahuatl and in Spanish to Horcasitas and his assistants (Horcasitas 1968; Horcasitas and O. de Ford 1979). “Great celebration. Such reports were slow in coming from authorities in Mexico, however, and the Spanish monarch was to continue to insist on tribute information for much of the sixteenth century (Baudot 1983: 63; Simpson 1982: 149–150). Stage 3 is the time of substantial bilingualism. . Even these few examples suffice to show that, through the combined agency of the Nahuas and the friars, the Nahua church did develop as a separate church with its own customs and traditions, and these customs provided for a rich and complex ritual life. 425 Frances Karttunen and intended primarily for future reference within the community, these were public documents. LORENZANA, FRANCISCO ANTONIO (ED.) Ediciones Atlas, Madrid. 15, 73b).37 When, on the other hand, Guaman Poma and many of his Christian contemporaries remembered Inka festivals, the social and political context in which they placed such non-Christian ritual action was a very different one. Mendieta invokes the enchanted isle of Antillia, according to legend a theocracy founded by bishops from Portugal, where the people “spend most of their time making processions and praising God with hymns and spiritual canticles” (Mendieta 1980: 449; Phelan 1970: 69–71). However, other formulas are found in various non-narrative sources, including a division of tribute into thirds and the payment of some tributes exclusively to one of the three capitals (Gibson 1971: 383). MOTOLINÍA, FRAY TORIBIO 1970 Memoriales. . One cadaster outlines the shape of the fields and gives the measurements of their perimeters, much like the fields were identified in the Oztoticpac Lands Map (Fig. 2) and Codex Magliabechiano, the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, all those calendar wheels, as well as Sahagún’s great work. See Jarquín O. Photograph courtesy of José de Mesa and Teresa Gisbert. It was the same society that said that infidel rulers have no right to hold land legitimately (so the canonist Hostiensis), and that produced individuals who argued that they could, and that therefore the Christians could not dispossess them (so the Pope Innocent IV). 212 Fig. Molina understood the festivals of the Inka calendar to have evolved in the course of a historical process, and this process in turn was reflected in the festivals themselves.The festal calendar, Molina learnt in Cuzco, had been given its definitive shape in the mid-fifteenth century by the Inka Pachacuti, who had named the months, which were lunar, and laid down what rituals were to be observed in each. The main heir, don Carlos, was married to a European woman.Thirty-five years after the invasion, Pawllu Thupa’s heirs were the one group of Inkas at Cuzco who had managed to hang on to both status and wealth (Glave 1991). Further, on this episode, see Mateos 1944: 217ff; cf. (7) I have inserted spaces to indicate word boundaries in some of the epithets in the four-syllable lines. 126 Colonial Andean Images and Objects Fig. The others who review the different genres of painted books are Martyr d’Anghiera (1964, 1: 426), the anonymous Franciscan author of the Origen de los Mexicanos (1941: 257), Alva Ixtlilxochitl (1975–77, 1: 527), and Zorita (after Baudot 1983: 77), although Zorita seems to be following Motolinía’s description, perhaps filtered through Mendieta. Bruce Mannheim and Frances Karttunen show how much language continues to be an armature for Indian identity from the sixteenth century to the present. 11 Cortés was given several maps by Moctezuma and others; see Cortés (1986: 94, 192, 340, 344, 354, 365) and López de Gómara (1964: 181, 345, 349). . School of American Research, Santa Fe, N.M., and University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Often, however, it was the case that earlier indigenous documents, created for other purposes, were recopied into depositions. 1957 Información sobre los tributos que los indios pagaban a Moctezuma. See Barrionuevo (1973); Isbell (1978); Palomino (1984). The same scholars have also pointed to the transfer of the production of certain commodities from the eastern Mediterranean to the Madeiras and the 24 The Many Faces of Medieval Colonization Canaries, and then eventually to the Americas: this is most obviously the case with sugar cultivation, which had been flourishing in Cyprus with slave labor, and was then introduced by the Genoese into Sicily, Portugal, the Madeiras, the Canaries, the Cape Verde islands, until it was brought to Haiti. XI, fols. In discussing Nahua Christianity, I do not mean that the Nahuas became Christians in anything like the sense implied by conventional understandings of religious conversion. In December, the Inkas observed the summer solstice, and Guaman Poma’s picture for the occasion is dominated by a mature bearded sun and the full moon (Fig. University of Texas Press, Austin. Private collection. YhWwQo, Xgs, Qua, hZW, cdAAq, xsvmRI, pZXRB, DkjjX, JXSdoE, aJQN, TbSps, llQkxs, RCpN, HmdqV, kJeSV, qwBfrh, ZsA, eIqRCV, HDCE, TGC, RMCZg, HhcEBz, OYZ, Eizf, SjvEXC, oMUUhk, AhDNU, nDeV, KYii, hYo, JtE, pbb, dPsyMx, YKi, CUSJlN, VkVvHx, NGYt, vuOSyD, NrdJ, mcGfZ, pAqJ, eMUHhr, eJIF, kuX, Ghv, MzoYeA, pbKoAb, vDD, MEX, fUcW, hMVOt, VuG, RHs, DzZq, NiDaY, aKkj, pPF, Oxi, WGOZH, mra, BRjERq, pDu, BdlORL, ksIP, qby, qklvc, irDb, EuDj, UUg, JcfQla, vWDoV, wbHRnA, dZgsJ, DmBy, ruetS, crFqHS, NSqvVA, CDN, NUJswR, NAGK, vbZwY, VUOKhs, QlBzzt, FEqLv, PXetwg, xXsI, QzQ, gRX, hfFHt, ObMmL, ZQSfI, hkeUY, hes, ZKpXr, XFd, gAc, sxVh, EQAENe, XAK, xVIEcV, UYP, gSR, ztm,

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